Transgenerational Trauma: the Legacy of War and Conflict
Transgenerational trauma is a rapidly developing field which has attracted significant attention in recent years as researchers strive to understand the long-term psychological, social and cultural impacts of violent conflict. Theories of intergenerational trauma emphasise that trauma is not confined to the individuals that directly experience and witness violence. Instead, the behaviours and characteristics it provokes can be transferred to victims’ offspring, resulting in effects that span several generations. Research on transgenerational trauma first emerged in the 1960s in the context of Holocaust survivors and has since been adapted to explore the impacts of other violent periods. Conflicts studied in this area of research range from the ethnic cleansing of Native Americans and the Rwandan and Cambodian genocides to American soldiers stationed during the Iraq war and the enslavement of Africans as part of the Atlantic slave trade.
Psychological studies have characterised various symptoms exhibited by the children and grandchildren of trauma survivors. These vary from group to group but normally manifest in signs associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) such as depression, anxiety and stress as well as behavioural disorders such as aggression and delinquency. Research conducted on the Holodomor famine genocide in Ukraine between 1932 and 1933, for example, studied second and third generation survivors of forced starvation. These individuals were found to suffer from anxiety, stress, shame, mistrust and fear, amongst other characteristics. They also inherited coping mechanisms and ‘survival mode’ techniques which would have been manifested their parents and grandparent’s behaviours, such as overeating; hoarding material possessions; food stockpiling; overemphasis on food; social hostility; a lack of trust and cooperation with the wider community; and a general disregard for others. The transmission of characteristics and resilience patterns beyond the direct sufferers of conflict offers credence to theories about intergenerational trauma and depicts how the echoes of war continue to wreak devastation on populations.
Two main modes have been identified through which intergenerational trauma is believed to be transmitted across generations: the social and cultural environments in which children are raised and epigenetic transmission. Various studies have pointed to childrearing practices as pathways through which intergenerational trauma is transmitted. Children’s social environments are shaped by how their parent-victims discuss their tragic experiences and the lessons they teach about the world. Parenting styles can therefore either support their children come to terms with their familial history or cause further fragmentation. Take, for example, a study investigating the offspring of Holocaust survivors in Brazil which noted that parent-victims who had presented an imminent sense of doom, depicting the world as terrifying, raised children who suffered from heightened anxiety, vulnerability and guilt. These children grew up fearing the outside world and were taught to take extra precautions avoid disasters. One interview noted that her parents imparted lessons such as ‘you always have to have, let’s say, a pair of underwear and a pair of socks at hand so you can take off. Always ready.’ This demonstrates how parenting and communication styles play an instrumental role in transferring the effects of trauma. While these children did not directly suffer the persecution and violence of Nazi Germany they nevertheless felt its aftereffects. These second-generation victims of conflict then repeat the mentalities they have learnt from their parents in their own childrearing practices, creating a social memory that spans several generations. This allows regimes to continue to traumatise generations long after their demise.
A growing body of research points also towards epigenetic changes as a viable pathway for trauma to be transferred across generations. Epigenetics is the study of how certain genes are ‘switched on’ (expressed) or ‘switched off’ (supressed) in response to external environments in order to enable individuals to survive. These expressed or suppressed genes are then passed on to offspring, modifying the behaviour of future generations. This is particularly pertinent for pregnant women as the gestational period is highly sensitive to external pressures. A critical contribution to the field of epigenetic transmission of trauma was offered by the Dutch famine of 1944-45, known as the ‘Hongerwinter’ or hunger winter. Women who were pregnant during the famine gave birth to smaller children who also, much to researchers’ surprise, had smaller babies than average, offering support for theories of epigenetic inheritance of trauma. Examination of the DNA of victims of Hongerwinter also reflected the increased expression of genes associated with disorders such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and schizophrenia which were then passed down to their children. There are various other studies which have pointed towards changes in the DNA as a means of transmitting trauma across generations; individuals tackling racial discrimination have been found to suffer from increased expression of genes linked to bipolar disorder and asthma. Similarly, research has found that sons of Prisoners of War born after the American Civil War were more likely to die young. This is hypothesised to be linked to epigenetic changes wrought by the brutal conditions in prisoner camps where individuals battled scurvy, overcrowding and torture. So while parenting styles constitute psychological and social forms of trauma, epigenetic transmission is a physical manifestation of trauma across generations.
However, many questions remain unanswered. Current research has produced mixed and sometimes contradictory results; for example, some research groups of Holocaust survivors have failed to display any of the symptoms commonly associated with transgenerational trauma. The field is also comparatively young and underdeveloped. It therefore requires extensive further investigation in order to establish a causal link between the social upheaval caused by war and psychological disorders in future generations who did not experience the conflict directly. Nevertheless, it remains a fascinating body of work that will shape our knowledge about the detrimental long-term consequences of violence and the lasting impression of violence on future generations.
Greater understanding about the effects of conflict can also help design specific therapy and social programmes to support victims and their families. A range of projects have been undertaken to address symptoms and issues associated with transgenerational trauma. For example, researchers have been developing intervention schemes catering to individual Native American tribes in order to strengthen the ‘sense of community’ and ‘generation ties’ which have been disrupted by conflict. Examples of practices and exercises focused on addressing transgenerational trauma include crafting family trees that outline instances of trauma and struggle. Such practices aim to foster open conversations and tackle barriers which silence victims and their experiences, hopefully leading to stronger social connections and collective growth. In a similar vein, projects aimed to address mental health disorders in African-Americans employ a range of tools such as mindfulness, physical exercise and the avoidance of triggers such as news stories about race-based hate crimes and brutalities. These projects ensure that wars do not continue to inflict suffering on individuals long after they have ended, allowing victims and their descendants to truly begin recovering and healing from the vestiges of conflict.
